Introduction
The Great Outdoors
Look around you. Now, ask yourself: "Where is geography?" It shouldn't
take you long to notice that it is not indoors. It is outdoors.
Geography involves data. Some data have already been collected and
exist in readily usable forms. Census data, and land records are two of
the more common forms of what is known as "secondary" data. These data
have their advantages, especially in regards to understanding large
areas. However, they are often too general to provide insight at the
more local level, and they often suffer from being out-of-date, or at
least not up-to-date.
Certain geographical problems, for instance those where essential
data are not available from published sources or the existing data are
outdated or otherwise unreliable, require data to be collected
first-hand "in the field." This course deals with just such data
collection. Emphasis is placed here on the techniques used to obtain
what is known as "primary" data from field observation. Being an upper
division course, it is assumed that you, the field worker, can apply
pertinent concepts, knowledge of subject matter, and skills acquired in
other courses and experiences to the solution of specific field
problems.
Although many geographers today are fascinated with the wizardry of
the Age of Electronics, and, indeed, many topics can only be addressed
with such tools, there is still the need for geographers to get their
boots dirty. In fact, the dichotomy between what might be envisaged as
modern electronic geographers and old fashioned explorers is becoming
increasingly obscured. In this class we will be both outdoors and wired.
You will learn some very old, basic, and still reliable techniques, and
you will learn how to use some of the lastest electronic field tools.
Methods and Techniques
The terms "methods" and "techniques" are often used interchangeably.
For our purposes, however, a distinction will be made. The term methods
is used to describe overall research framework or design. In this
respect it is usually the logical next step after establishing the
theoretical context of the research project (something usually reserved
for graduate level courses). The term techniques refers to the
actual manner in which field data are collected.
One convenient way to think about the differences between theory,
methods, and techniques is to compare them with championships, games,
and plays, respectively, as outlined below:
|
The goal: |
to be the champions |
to address a specific theory |
|
The objective (strategy): |
to win games |
to formulate research methods |
|
The tactics: |
to run plays correctly |
to use techniques |
The Problem of Diversity
Geographers are interested in the spatial distribution of phenomena and
their areal associations over the surface of the earth. In spite of this
common concern, we are a diverse lot. The Association of American
Geographers currently recognizes more than 50 topical or systematic
subfields, and specialty
groups.
Given this diversity, each field problem is unique and the specific
techniques employed to acquire data must be adjusted to serve its needs.
Each field problem has its special qualities, areal characteristics, and
its own set of essential data to be collected. There is, for better or
worse, no standard set of techniques that can be applied in every
circumstance.
When are field techniques needed?
Research problems that frequently require field work can be classified
into three highly generalized groups.
- Microscale problems in which the data required are so
detailed that no published sources exist and for which the data cannot
be obtained from map, aerial photograph, or other remote-sensing imagery
interpretation.
- Problems that are concerned with dynamic areas which undergo
changes over very short periods of time.
- Problems that require information that does not reflect itself as
visible features on the landscape, such as certain types of social and
behavioral patterns.
For those geographers who address themselves to what are often called
"applied" problems such as land use, environmental quality, planning, as
well as those interested in "theoretical" problems such as fluvial
processes, and cultural ecology, field work has long been a necessary
part of their overall training.
The Scope of Modern Field Research
Many current field problems are concerned with the location of new
facilities, be they stores, factories, parks, etc. Detailed information
about the biophysical characteristics of the land and socioeconomic
factors must be collected and analyzed to determine optimum sites. Other
field projects focus on land use developments and land use
planning--determining the optimum facility to place on a specific tract
of land. Data collected in the field serve as the basis of planning and
often minimize conflicts arising from incompatible land use
developments.
In recent years there has been much interest in hazards, both
natural (e.g., earthquakes) and human-made (e.g., water pollution).
Surprisingly little data at appropriate scales exists to address such
issues. Accordingly, developing relevant ordinances and regulations to
control the building certain things in certain places depends on
detailed field studies. The legal necessity of preparing environmental
impact statements (EIS) has drastically increased the number and the
quality of field investigations.
Data Acquisition
The acquisition of field data is accomplished in three major ways:
- By systematically observing and/or mapping features and
objects visible on the landscape.
- By using instruments and tools, such as stream gauges and
increment borers, when precise information about specific processes are
required.
- By interviewing people to obtain information concerning
nonvisible aspects of the area, and by watching people to understand
what they are doing as well as what they have done.
The nature of a specific problem, including the size of the study are,
will determine the degree of coverage, or what some scholars call the
"intensity" of the field work. In some cases, a given area may be so
large (e.g., a river valley as opposed to the watershed of a creek) that
total coverage by mapping or interviewing is not feasible, much less
possible. To compensate for this, field workers often have to employ sampling
procedures. There is, unfortunately, no standard formula that can be
applied universally to all field problems to determine whether total
coverage of an area is necessary or what types and amount of sampling
should be used.
Field Training and This Course
The values and purposes of geographical field training at the college
level can be grouped into two broad categories.
- To prepare students for a career in applied geographical research [examples].
- To enrich the general and overall education of students of
geography and related fields.
This course will do both. It is also intended to help students:
- Develop a better understanding of the nature of things covered in
other topical and regional geography courses, and read about in books.
- Enhance their ability to read the landscape.
- Experience the thrill of discovery.
- Distinguish between necessary and extraneous information.
Field courses take a number of various formats. Some courses literally
involve being in the field, often at some exotic locale, for extended
periods of time [ sample
]. Others are offered during regular semesters, and on
campus. Of the latter, some are specialized and advanced.
For example, learning the science of palynology which involves
collecting and analyzing fossil pollen requires a great deal of work
which is both focused and detailed. Other courses, of which this
is one, are structured in such a way as to be comprehensive and introductory.
Students will be exposed to a number of field techniques pertinent to
several major subfields of the discipline, both physical and human.
Exercises and activities will cover a variety of topics, including but
not limited to landforms, vegetation, and land use. They will require a
general background in geography.
The rationale for a comprehensive course is to expose students to a
diversity of field techniques in order to develop skills and
perspectives that are applicable to a wide range of field situations.
Initially, this course will involve highly structured simple
data-collection exercises. Subsequent activities will be more complex
and open-ended. Most of the projects will be undertaken in groups of two
to four students.
Created by William E. Doolittle. Revised 12 May 2017